Distributed+Learning+References

 DISTRIBUTED COGNITION AND DISTRIBUTED LEARNING > 1. INTRODUCTION > 2. DISTRIBUTED COGNITION AND DISTRIBUTED LEARNING > 3. APPLICATIONS OF DISTRIBUTED LEARNING > 4. DISTRIBUTED LEARNING EXAMPLES > 5. CHALLENGES TO IMPLEMENTATION OF DISTRIBUTED LEARNING > 6. ASSESSING DISTRIBUTED LEARNING > 7. REFERENCES

**7. REFERENCES**

 * 1) **References**
 * 2) **Links**
 * 3) **Blackboard Forum Quotes**



7.1. References

 * A**tkins, D. E., Brown, J. S. & Hammond, A. (2007). A review of the Open Education Resources Movement: Achievements, challenges, and new opportunities. William and Flora Hewlett Foundation. Retrieved on August 17, 2008, from http://www.oerderves.org/wp-content/uploads/2007/03/a-review-of-the-open-educational-resources-oer-movement_final.pdf.

Bachman, K. (2000) //Corporate e-Learning: Exploring a New Frontier,// WR Hambrecht + Co., Accessed August 29, 2008 from [|www.astd.org/NR/rdonlyres/4328933C-DE4E-412A-896F-EC6C45FCE8EE/0/hambrecht.pdf]

Bielaczyc, K. & Collins, A. (1999). Learning Communities in Classrooms:Advancing Knowledge for a Lifetime. NASSP Bulletin, **83(no604)** Retrieved August 6, 2008, from http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e941dc0a063cffa913a1916c0584aafb8246e38d17d40b80881b5f495c3de9045&fmt=H

Bos, N., Zimmerman, A., Olson, J., Yew, J., Yerkie, J., Dahl, E. & Olson, G. (2007). From shared databases to communities of practice: A taxonomy of collaboratories. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 12(2): 652-672. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/cgi-bin/fulltext/117979323/HTMLSTART

Coughlin, D. (1997) Organizational learning as a dynmaic interlevel process', in M.A. Rahim, R.T. Golembiewski and L.E. Pate (eds), //Current Topics in Management//, vol. 2 Greenwich, CT: JAI. pp.2 7-44.

Dede, C. (2004). Enabling Distributed Learning Communities Via Emerging Technologies- Part One. T.H.E. Journal, 32 (no2) Retrieved August 5, 2008 from http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e941dc0a063cffa916d53f2773cc42b38c9fce1b65105b87843f63cf3f4e5b7de&fmt=H PDF: http://vnweb.hwwilsonweb.com.lib.pepperdine.edu/hww/jumpstart.jhtml?recid=0bc05f7a67b1790e941dc0a063cffa916d53f2773cc42b38c9fce1b65105b87843f63cf3f4e5b7de&fmt=P

Dede, C. (1996). Emerging Technologies and Distributed Learning. The American Journal of Distance Education. 10(2) p4-36. Retrieved on August 17, 2008 from http://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&lr=&cluster=1815936064264253874

Fostering Learning in the Networked World: The Cyberlearning Opportunity and Challenge - A 21st Century Agenda for the National Science Foundation. Report of the National Science Foundation Task Force on Cyberlearning, June 24, 2008. Retrieved on August 17, 2008, from http://connect.educause.edu/Library/Abstract/FosteringLearningintheNet/47165

Hollin, J., Hutchins, E, & Kirsch, D. (2000) Distributed Cognition: Toward a New Foundation for Human-Computer Interaction ResearchACM Transactions on Computer-Human Interaction, Vol. 7, No. 2, June 2000, Pages 174–196.

Oblinger, D., Barone, C., & Hawkins, B. (2001). Distributed Education and It’s Challenges: An overview. American Council on Education. Retrieved on August 17, 2008 from http://209.85.141.104/search?q=cache:HFAryq7vZRkJ:www.acenet.edu/bookstore/pdf/distributed-learning/distributed-learning-01.pdf+distributed+learning&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=5&gl=us&client=firefox-a  Richardson, S.M. (2005) //Knowledge Management and the Design of Distributed Cognition Systems,// University of Central Florida. http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/hicss/2005/2268/08/22680242a.pdf   Soloman, G. (1997) //Distributed Cognitions: Psychological and educational considerations//. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 275pp.

Tekinarslan, E. (2004) 'Project Based Distributed Learning and Adult Learners' Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education Retrieved August 9, 2008 from http://tojde.anadolu.edu.tr/tojde14/index.htm



7.1. Links
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Distributed+Learning []
 * http://www.thefreedictionary.com/collaboration

**

7.2. Blackboard Forum Quotes**
QUOTES MOVED HERE BY BRETT FROM THE BLACKBOARD DISCUSSION ON THESE TOPICS: Andrea- I found this tidbit to provide some clarification for me... "Distributed learning is not just a new term to replace the other 'DL,' distance learning. Rather, it comes from the concept of distributed resources. Distributed learning is an instructional model that allows instructor, students, and content to be located in different, noncentralized locations so that instruction and learning occur independent of time and place. The distributed learning model can be used in combination with traditional classroom-based courses, with traditional distance learning courses, or it can be used to create wholly virtual classrooms. Learners gain a greater degree of control of how, when, and where their learning occurs. They also increase their level of responsibility for their own learning and are no longer passive receptacles of information and knowledge." http://techcollab.csumb.edu/techsheet2.1/distributed.html -Andrea

Sonja- Since distributed learning by definition is the hybridization of traditional, technological and emerging modalities for delivery of curriculum and distribution of information and ideas. The course work was delivered using distributed learning. A wide variety of modalities were use to deliver the curriculum and allow student(s) and instructor(s) to collaborate. (We did not however use Morse code…but now that I have mentioned it...) -Sonja

Andrea- "Emerging devices, tools, media and virtual environments offer opportunities for creating new types of learning communities for students and teachers (this displays distributed learning because web tools are used to transfer, share and acquire new information). The defining quality of a learning community is that there is a culture of learning in which everyone is involved in a collective effort of understanding (the collective effort of understanding, responding and reflecting demonstrates distributed cognition because the original thoughts or "cognitive processes" of each member are displayed for all to see and learn from)." -Dede quote highlighted by Andrea

Margaret- Another term that is close to distributed cognition is social capital –Margaret

Maria DJ- I have thought about your question of whether or not you can have distributed learning without technology. I think you would be limiting the definition if you said no. I think technology is a great tool that is used in distributed learning, however I believe that it can happen without it. An example could be a classroom setting that had experts come in and share their knowledge of a particular subject the students are learning about, or the students going out into their communities to find people knowledgeable of the subject. -Maria DJ

Erin- I read some of the previous comments and am thinking about the difference between collaboration and distributed learning. They are related but not synonymous. Collaboration happens in distributed learning. Distributed learning is learning that expands and sees no boundaries, using technology as a tool. Collaboration does not always require technology and may not encompass such a broad range of learners. –Erin

Dan- From "Enabling Distributed Learning Communities Via Emerging Technologies - Part One" by Chris Dede: "Many participants in distributed learning situations report that the use of asynchronous learning environments (such as threaded online discussions, which do not rely on posting at the same time for interaction) positively affects their participation and individual cognitive processes for mastering knowledge and skills." -Dan

Margaret- From my set of concepts, I would describe what you experiences as a community of practice. You care about the knowledge and how new members are socialized into the group. If a community doesn't worry about it this, it dies. Newbies need to stay and move towards the center of the group for it to be a healthy community. And there needs to be some debate over the practices otherwise if the knowledge is static, there is not much growth and generally this is not a sign of health.

Now the question is how is a community of practice relates to distributed learning or distributed cognition. If you think of cognition as sitting inside the head of one person, what does it mean to talk about cognition across people? When you think group mind, what do you mean by that? Group think has a negative connotation--everyone thinking the same. How it that different from distributed thinking? –Margaret

James- Cognition in a group setting (at least this group) is to try and get everyone to have a similar expectation of what will happen when certain situations present themselves. Maybe not make everyone make the same decisions, but to help the group be able to evaluate and make decisions based upon the same factors - to get everyone able to recognize the same elements at the same time, and take whatever action they judge to be appropriate.

Group think to me is a misnomer - it should be labelled "group non-think." Group think as far as I can tell is where the entire group sees a situation and reacts in the same way, almost automatically. Sort of like a group programming, where the evaluation of decisions and reflection on the experience is removed. If 'A' happens, then you do 'B'. No thought of why B is the appropriate action, it just is. Distributed thinking seems to be all about getting people to see all aspects of 'A' and getting multiple points of view on what the appropriate response should be, or even if it needs a response. Or how to better accomplish 'B' if it needs to be accomplished. –James

James- My last thought on why this was a good distributed learning example was that the learning happened across distributed environments/tools - there was the audio connection (synchronous communication), the forums (asynchronous problem solving), the replays & setups (asynchronous examples), and race reviews (reflection). –James

Margaret- How does learner responsibility shift in distributed learning? -Margaret

Dijlah- I think the responsibilities shifts constantly among learners as needed, as they communicate to the group, share their ideas and experiences they are structuring group discussions and decision making. –Dijlah

The Student is empowered in Distributed Learning, they are in complete control. Using the many resources available to them. - Karen

Dan- The most recent example I can think of from my own experience of Distributed Cognition is related to a project that I was leading at work. In order to tackle much of the work I needed to bring together various teams from around the world. I was able to use two online tools for the initial event, one for synchronous video conferencing, and one for document sharing, to have teams from three different countries participate in the project session at one time.

During the event the teams worked via webcam to share their perspectives and feedback with each other as we worked toward a common goal. The teams were able to scan and post their work in an online database so that others could reflect on their thoughts and provide their input. Some of this reflection and input even happened outside of the main session. –Dan

Dan- According to Wikipedia, "Distributed cognition illustrates the process of interaction between people and technologies in order to determine how to best represent, store and provide access to digital resources and other artifacts." In the project that I was leading the use of webcams and the online database aligned with this definition. –Dan

Brett- I also found the MindMaps Wiki to be very helpful, and found further evidence there that backs-up your assessment that your example was of distributed cognition:

“Distributed cognition is the process of interaction between people on a project collectively, but as soon as they separate and go back to working individually the collective cognition disappears” (Hutchins, 1995) –Brett

Greg- Maybe that is the one of the fundamental strengths of distributed learning. Learners have multiple modes to choose from in how they gain knowledge and comprehension, it's not limited to the classroom where learning is most often (unfortunately) handed out in a visual and auditory way with little social interaction. –Greg

Anne- To me with distributed learning, the learning environment can contain teachers, students, and information coming in and out of the learning environment asyrchnoously and synchronously. That is the benefit of distributed learning in that it can happen anytime and anywhere with no one necessarily being the end all be all of information. There maybe a person in charge organizing the learning but they are not limiting the learning to what they know, or only occuring within a certain time perameter. –Anne

Margaret- I will give a personal example of distributed cognition that just popped in my mind. When I was in in the middle of childbirth, I had distributed (or off loaded) part of the mental work of pacing the birth process to my coach --my husband. At some point I heard him say something about needed to use the bathroom--in somewhat of a panic state--I said no you can't leave me you are part of my mind. I had internalized his voice as part of my brain and and the idea that it--(this mental resource) would leave was just not possible. –Margaret

Brett- Starting off with the basics, I looked up the terms “distribute” and “cognition” in Webster’s Dictionary, and here’s what I found:

Distribute: To divide among several or many Cognition: The act or process of knowing

Put together, that’s “To divide among several or many the act or process of knowing”

Intrinsic to this definition, I believe, is the idea of sharing between multiple people. This belief is reinforced by Norman’s example in his book’s chapter on distributed cognition where he describes (as pointed out by Margaret) the actions in the cockpit of a plane and in the navigational procedures used in large ships being illustrative of the use of distributed cognition.

“The critical thing about doing shared tasks is to keep everyone informed about the complete state of things. The technical term for this is situation awareness: Each pilot or member of the control team must be fully aware of the situation, of what has happened, what is planned.” p.142 (Norman, 1993)

My big take-away from this was the idea that distributed cognition can also be thought of as situational awareness. Dan’s example seems to really showcase a great way in which his organization promoted situational awareness, or distributed cognition, through the creative use of technology, while moving towards the accomplishment of a project.

Clues to how this may differ from distributed learning began to emerge for me after reading this additional passage from the Norman text:

“Hutchins showed that the shared communication channel and, especially, the shared hearing of the errors was critical to the robustness and reliability of the task. A navigation team is a permanent fixture of a ship, but the individual members of the team are continually changing. At any one time, the team is composed of individuals who vary in skill from novices to accomplished experts. The shared communication keeps them all informed. The shared listening to the errors and the corrections acts as an informal, but essential, training program, one that is operating continually and naturally, without disrupting the flow of activity.” p.144 (Norman, 1993)

Seeing the word “training” there caused me to think about how distributed cognition can also have the second order effect of providing on-the-job training, while further solidifying my belief that distributed cognition seems to generally be task-oriented and very experiential. I don’t think that distributed cognition tasks become distributed learning until the training has truly been internalized, either through deep reflection or by a sort of experiential “muscle memory.” –Brett

Dan- In defining 'learning' I like the process of how adults learn outlined by Coghlan in "Doing Action Research in Your Own Organization" on page 28. This model identifies learning as a process of experiencing, reflecting, interpreting, and taking action. If we use this model as a definition of learning then the complete learning takes place when information is synthesized and applied in a new way by an individual or group.

This to me is the ongoing aspect of Distributed Learning that separates it from Distributed Cognition. I see Distributed Cognition now as instances of individuals (often separate by distance and applying technology) bringing together their thoughts and knowledge to approach a particular issue or situation. I understand the learning to take place when the group knowledge is reflected upon, interpreted, and then acted on in some way and in an ongoing learning community.

The equations I am working on look like this:

Group knowledge sharing = Distributed Cognition

Group reflection on knowledge, interpretation and action taken as a result = Distributed Learning

There are many other factors involved, such as interaction with outside resources, a mix of interaction methods, as well as the idea of experts emerging from within the group throughout. –Dan

Dan- I see collaboration being an underlying enabler of either distributed cognition or distributed learning. It is a process by which groups come together to work toward a common goal using whatever tools and methods apply.

In the same way I see technology as an enabler to both distributed cognition and distributed learning that cuts across distance and time allowing for synchronous and asynchronous situations.

As I think more about the interaction between distributed learning and distributed cognition it seems to me that distributed cognition is always present in distributed learning, but distributed learning is not always a result of distributed cognition... –Dan

Anne- Distributed learning to me is allowing for the knowledge to be delivered in a variety of ways but a myriad of sources. –Anne

Anne- These students saw learning as existing amongst all, not coming from one single source, but that they were all participants. –Anne

Margaret- What is the role of expertise and experts in distributed learning. –Margaret

Dijlah- Distributed Learning - is learning through the use of distributed resources –Dijlah

Dijlah- Is, collaborative learning the same as distributed learning?

I had a tough time answering this question, I would say they are not the same but they support each other in the learning development; distributed learning process supports collaborative learning.

Are they synonyms are there subtle differences?

Similarities between the two would be they both require participants to help with the learning process. –Dijlah

Margaret- This sounds like a great example of distributed learning with the two notions (collaborative problem solving and use of technology supports of the collaboration) in place. –Margaret

Dijlah- distributed learning does not have to have a form of technology. Technology can be used to support distributed learining. –Dijlah

Andrea- I feel that for the first time, I am truly a part of a diverse group where we are sharing and learning from our diverse ways of thinking. As I reflect upon my undergrad years, I am recalling classrooms and lecture halls full of intelligent people who we were unable to learn from each other because the role of the teacher was solely to lecture and our role as students was solely to listen and take notes. –Andrea

Tanner- To me, collaboration is any work between two or more people toward a common goal. Distributed learning seems to be the learning that is involved within collaboration. Distributed learning does not nescessarily need technology, but they seem to go hand in hand this day and age –Tanner

Dan- Collaboration to me is just as you have mentioned, "...any work between two or more people toward a common goal." The idea of distribution brings in the concept that the shared work can take place regardless of place and even time constraints. Also, as many of our colleagues have pointed out on their posts, distribution also refers to the knowledge coming from many sources within the learning community as members move in and out of the role of 'expert' and through interaction with various learning artifacts.

This is not to say that collaboration can not be used in the same context. Where the definition expands for me is with the word 'learning'. If we think of learning as the following process: experiencing, reflecting, interpreting, and taking action. The term collaboration begins to seem limited in describing what happens within learning communities in the practice of distributed learning.

You can collaborate on a project with someone just to share information and add efficiency and new perspectives to the work without any reflection or interpretation involved. With distributed learning there is an intrinsic acknowledgment that something beyond the scope of a project will be created - new information that individuals and other groups can apply in new and different ways in an ongoing cycle. This happens through the reflection on experience, interpretation, and taking of action toward an improved state.

To me distributed cognition is focused on more momentary application of knowledge sharing across distance and synchronous timing. Where it seems to differ from distributed learning is in the ongoing application of what is gained through the knowledge sharing. Is this a one time event to come together and create a shared knowledge source, or is it intended to a part of an ongoing learning experience that grows and allows individuals within the community to expand on the ideas and reapply them in new contexts?

To sum it up, I feel that the term distributed learning refers to a much broader shared learning experience than collaboration alone. –Dan

Tanner- Basically what we are saying is that all distributed learning is collaboration; however, not all collaboration is distributed learning, but some CAN be. The difference lies in one's definition of learning. –Tanner